Mountain Formation

   

     Mountains are all basically formed by plate tectonics pushing against one another creating a large upward jutting formation, but the process behind them are different depending on type. There are 3 types of mountain formations;

1. Volcanic
2. Fold
3. Block

Volcanic

     Shifting tectonic plates create volcanoes which in turn  erupt to create mountains. Different types of volcanoes will create different looking mountains. Stratovolcanoes create a cone-like shaped mountain, while shield volcanoes create a gently upward sloping mountain.

Fold

     When tectonic plates collide or undergo subduction, they bend and fold. This folding creates mountains at the point of collision.

Block

     A block mountain is created by the shifting of a fault block. The block may shift up or down depending on the circumstances leading to the shift.

(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mountain_formation)

Isostasy

Isostasy (Greek ísos "equal", stásis "standstill") is the state of gravitational equilibrium between Earth's crust and mantle such that the crust "floats" at an elevation that depends on its thickness and density of underlying roots of the low density of the mountain.

 (https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Airy_Isostasy.jpg)

This concept is invoked to explain how different topographic heights can exist at Earth's surface. When a certain area of Earth's crust reaches the state of isostasy, it is said to be in isostatic equilibrium. Isostasy does not upset equilibrium but instead restores it (a negative feedback). It is generally accepted ^[1] that Earth is a dynamic system that responds to loads in many different ways. However, isostasy provides an important 'view' of the processes that are happening in areas that are experiencing vertical movement. Certain areas (such as the Himalayas) are not in isostatic equilibrium, which has forced researchers to identify other reasons to explain their topographic heights (in the case of the Himalayas, which are still rising, by proposing that their elevation is being "propped-up" by the force of the impacting Indian plate; the Basin and Range Province of the Western US is another example of a region not in isostatic equilibrium.)

Although originally defined in terms of continental crust and mantle, it has subsequently been interpreted in terms of lithosphere and asthenosphere, particularly with respect to oceanic island volcanoes such as the Hawaiian Islands.

In the simplest example, isostasy is the principle of buoyancy wherein an object immersed in a fluid is buoyed with a force equal to the weight of the displaced fluid. On a geological scale, isostasy can be observed where Earth's strong crust or lithosphere exerts stress on the weaker mantle or asthenosphere, which, over geological time, flows laterally such that the load is accommodated by height adjustments.

(https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/58/Clarence_Dutton_NOAA.jpg)

The general term 'isostasy' was coined in the year 1889 by the American geologist Clarence Dutton.

(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isostasy)

     The above quote is the more advanced and in-depth description of what Isostasy is. For the lay-man version, refer to my summary below;

     The Earth's crust is an ever-changing body of rock. The reason for this is from Sediments. Sediments will constantly create more layers on top of the old layers. This process affects the crust's elevation, creating unique topography throughout the world. The process itself is also known as Isostasy, But, it is interesting to note that not all geographical mountains are created this way. The Himalayas, for example, are not affected by Isostasy. They are created by two continental plates pushing against one another.

(http://www.slideshare.net/dluetgens/plate-tectonics-2908178)

Sima

In geology, sima is the name for the lower layer of the Earth's crust. This layer is made of rocks rich in magnesium silicate minerals. Typically when the sima comes to the surface it is basalt, so sometimes this layer is called the 'basalt layer' of the crust. The sima layer is also called the 'basal crust' or 'basal layer' because it is the lowest layer of the crust. Because the ocean floors are mainly sima, it is also sometimes called the 'oceanic crust'.

The name 'sima' was taken from the first two letters of silica and of magnesium. Comparable is the name 'sial' which is the name for the upper layer of the Earth's continental crust.

(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sima_(geology))

Properties

• Density: 2800-3300 kg/m³ (higher than Sial)

     Sima is more dense than Sial because it has higher concentrations of iron and magnesium, while having a decreased concentration of aluminum. When Sima gets pushed up to the surface it forms Mafic rocks. The more denser Sima, that has less Silica, forms Ultramafic rocks

(https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi077Nbjuon-ns6Ykif5jbeL2dTgmJrVjVx9-s4eSAh8_mr1a0IAlijWuHsG3BGvtjCKLkGE_eO7Zum-OBE139A3gVp7uqZow6mU-GR-GxxvZEdFAIpOLBgC8ZD4j-a8GcrSTu4QN9kHYE/s1600/sial+and+sima.jpg)

Sial

     What is Sial? Sial in Geology, refers to the upper layer of the Earth's crust with rocks rich in silicates and aluminum minerals. Sial is usually associated with Continental Crusts because they can't be found in Oceanic Crusts, but the word Sial is a Geochemical term rather than a tectonic term.

     Rocks found in the Sial layer are called Felsic, because they contain high levels of Feldspar, which is an aluminum silicate mineral series. But, on the other hand, Sial can also contain a large mixture of different minerals, including Basaltic rocks.

(https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Eduard_Suess_1869.jpg/800px-Eduard_Suess_1869.jpg)

     Sial is the contrast of Sima, the next lower layer, These names were proposed by Eduard Suess during the 19th century. It was later proven by modern scientific methods that his model of the outer layers of Earth were correct.

Properties

• Density: 2700-2800 kg/m³ (lower than Sima)
• Depth: 5-70 km

(https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3c/Precambrian_Granite_St_Francis_Mountains_Missouri.jpg)

The Geological Nature of Earth

The Earth's Crust

(http://easyscienceforkids.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/03/Science-for-Kids-Website-All-about-Earths-Crust-Layers-of-the-Earth-image.jpg)

     The crust is the outermost shell of Earth. It is the thinnest layer and contains more incompatible materials than all the other mantles. The crust is formed through various igneous processes that remain similar for other planets as well.

     Earth's crust consists of a variety of igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks. The boundary that separates the crust and mantle is called the  Mohorovičić discontinuity. This boundary is determined by seismic velocity and mostly contains Peridotite which is denser than the rocks normally found in the crust. It is also worth noting that Earth's crust makes up less than 1% of Earth's volume.

• Oceanic Crust: 5-10 km thick, Basalt, Diabase, Gabbro
• Continental Crust: 30-50 km thick, Granite and other less dense rocks  

(http://www.rpdp.net/sciencetips_v3/images/e8c3/E8C3_clip_image003.jpg)

     Both of these types of crusts float on the mantle. The Continental Crust has a slightly lower density than the Oceanic Crust giving it a higher relative elevation. This means that water will flow off of Continental Crusts and collect in Oceanic Crusts.

The Mantle

     The mantle is the layer between the core and the crust. It makes up about 84% of Earth's volume. The mantle is a silicate rocky shell that has an average thickness of approximately 2886 km. It is essentially a solid, but in geological time the mantle behaves like a viscous fluid. Dunite is very commonly found in the mantle, but can't be found in the crust, with the exception of a volcano eruption. Dunite will be found mixed with the lava.

The Core of it All

     The Earth's core is divided into two main parts. The inner core and outer core. The inner core is solid and has a radius of about 1220 km. The outer core is liquid and has a radius of 3400 km. The inner core was discovered by Inge Lehmann in the year 1936. Generally, the primary composition of the inner core is believed to be iron and nickel. The core isn't exactly a solid, but it does retain some essence of being a solid since it can deflect seismic waves. A lot isn't yet understood regarding the Earth's core, since the only evidence we have is seismic wave frequencies. 

(http://www.azquotes.com/picture-quotes/quote-you-should-know-how-many-incompetent-men-i-had-to-compete-with-in-vain-inge-lehmann-61-81-02.jpg)

Seismology

     Seismometers are instruments that measure the movement of the ground. Most commonly associated with earthquakes, Scientists also use this instrument to determine the nature of Earth's inner core.

(http://www.daviddarling.info/images2/seismograph.jpg)

P Waves

P-waves are a type of body wave, called seismic waves in seismology, that travel through a continuum and are the first waves from an earthquake to arrive at a seismograph. The continuum is made up of gases (as sound waves), liquids, or solids, including the Earth. P-waves can be produced by earthquakes and recorded by seismographs. The name P-wave can stand for either pressure wave as it is formed from alternating compressions and rarefactions or primary wave, as it has the highest velocity and is therefore the first wave to be recorded.^[1]

In isotropic and homogeneous solids, the mode of propagation of a P-wave is always longitudinal; thus, the particles in the solid vibrate along the axis of propagation (the direction of motion) of the wave energy.

(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P-wave)

     P waves help determine the make of the inner core because they travel faster when traveling through denser material. This can be calculated by the the following equation known as Birch's Law.

Geologist Francis Birch discovered a relationship between the velocity of P waves and the density of the material the waves are traveling in:

(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P-wave)

(http://www.astro.uwo.ca/~jlandstr/planets/webfigs/earth/images/waves.gif)

S Waves

S-waves, secondary waves, or shear waves (sometimes called an elastic S-wave) are a type of elastic wave, and are one of the two main types of elastic body waves, so named because they move through the body of an object, unlike surface waves.

The S-wave moves as a shear or transverse wave, so motion is perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation. The wave moves through elastic media, and the main restoring force comes from shear effects. These waves do not diverge, and they obey the continuity equation for incompressible media:

The shadow zone of aP-wave. S-waves don't penetrate the outer core, so they're shadowed everywhere more than 104° away from the epicenter (from USGS)

Its name, S for secondary, comes from the fact that it is the second direct arrival on an earthquake seismogram, after the compressional primary wave, or P-wave, because S-waves travel slower in rock. Unlike the P-wave, the S-wave cannot travel through the molten outer core of the Earth, and this causes a shadow zone for S-waves opposite to where they originate. They can still appear in the solid inner core: when a P-wave strikes the boundary of molten and solid cores, S-waves will then propagate in the solid medium. And when the S-waves hit the boundary again they will in turn create P-waves. This property allows seismologists to determine the nature of the inner core.

(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S-wave)

     There is a blind spot where P waves can't penetrate to which is the Earth's core. S waves also can't reach the core because they can't get past the molten outer core, but P waves can reach the boundary of the solid inner core, turn into S waves, and come back out again as P waves. Based on the speed/time it took for these waves to reach the other end, Scientists are able to determine the type of material that makes up the Earth's core.

The Nebular Hypothesis

     This theory is the most accepted model in Cosmogony to explain the formation of the Solar System. Basically, this theory suggests that our Solar System was formed from Nebulous material.

(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immanuel_Kant)

• Developed By: Immanuel Kant
• Published: Allgemeine Naturgeschichte und Theorie des Himmels ("Universal Natural History and Theory of the Heavens")
• Year: 1755
• Modern Variant: Solar Nebular Disk Model (SNDM)

     Originally, this theory was created specifically for our Solar System, but now scientists believe that this theory also applies to our Universe. The actual details of Solar System formation are very complicated and can't be explained simply without cutting off many important factors. Which is why I will quote the actual process from Wikipedia and insert a video explaining the theory below.

(http://www.wolaver.org/Space/seahorse.htm)

According to the nebular hypothesis, stars form in massive and dense clouds of molecular hydrogen—giant molecular clouds (GMC). These clouds are gravitationally unstable, and matter coalesces within them to smaller denser clumps, which then rotate, collapse, and form stars. Star formation is a complex process, which always produces a gaseousprotoplanetary disk around the young star. This may give birth to planets in certain circumstances, which are not well known. Thus the formation of planetary systems is thought to be a natural result of star formation. A Sun-like star usually takes approximately 1 million years to form, with the protoplanetary disk evolving into a planetary system over the next 10–100 million years.^[1]

The protoplanetary disk is an accretion disk that feeds the central star. Initially very hot, the disk later cools in what is known as the T tauri star stage; here, formation of small dust grains made of rocks and ice is possible. The grains eventually may coagulate into kilometer-sized planetesimals. If the disk is massive enough, the runaway accretions begin, resulting in the rapid—100,000 to 300,000 years—formation of Moon- to Mars-sized planetary embryos. Near the star, the planetary embryos go through a stage of violent mergers, producing a few terrestrial planets. The last stage takes approximately 100 million to a billion years.^[1]

The formation of giant planets is a more complicated process. It is thought to occur beyond the so-called frost line, where planetary embryos mainly are made of various types of ice. As a result, they are several times more massive than in the inner part of the protoplanetary disk. What follows after the embryo formation is not completely clear. Some embryos appear to continue to grow and eventually reach 5–10 Earth masses—the threshold value, which is necessary to begin accretion of the hydrogen–helium gas from the disk. The accumulation of gas by the core is initially a slow process, which continues for several million years, but after the forming protoplanet reaches about 30 Earth masses (M_⊕) it accelerates and proceeds in a runaway manner. Jupiter- and Saturn-like planets are thought to accumulate the bulk of their mass during only 10,000 years. The accretion stops when the gas is exhausted. The formed planets can migrate over long distances during or after their formation. Ice giants such as Uranus andNeptune are thought to be failed cores, which formed too late when the disk had almost disappeared.

     To explain the broad idea found in the above quote, planets are formed thanks to the birth of new stars. While stars are formed by 'dense clouds of molecular hydrogen -- giant molecular clouds' or more commonly known as GMC. The matter within the GMC collapse due to gravity and form a star.

(http://www.everythingselectric.com/planet-formation-theory-debunked/)

Assignment 10: My Hand

Camera: Samsung Galaxy J7

Assignment 9: Negative Space

Camera: Samsung Galaxy J7

     Negative space is a tricky subject to tackle, especially in photography. I'll do my best to explain it. Negative space is the space surrounding the positive space (aka. the subject of your photo) that supplements the importance of the positive space. It helps give the viewer some 'eye space' so that the viewer does not feel attacked with too much information. Using too much or too little negative space gives your photograph negative feedback. You need to balance out the positive and negative with and an equation that is only learned through experience.

Assignment 8: Textures

Camera: Samsung Galaxy J7

Assignment 7: Create Abstracts

Camera: Samsung Galaxy J7

     Abstracts are things that seem abnormal to what you would see in life, but can be found by those with the right eyes.

Assignment 6: Leading Lines

Camera: Samsung Galaxy J7

     Leading lines in photography are objects that lead the viewers eyes to a certain part of the picture. This can be used to further emphasize the three-dimensions.

     My best example of leading lines. I used a B&W filter to make this photo way more dramatic than it was before.

Assignment 5: Symmetry

Camera: Samsung Galaxy J7

     Anything symmetrical honestly. It is most easily found in architecture and design.





     A lion sculpture became much more dramatic after adding a B&W filter.

Assignment 4: Interesting Perspectives

Camera: Samsung Galaxy J7

     Interesting perspectives are new ways of looking at everyday objects and finding a story hidden within.


The classic bird's eye view technique.


A simple table set can be made interesting just by changing the way you look at it.


Sometimes you can just have fun with these techniques.

Assignment 3: Reflections

Camera: Samsung Galaxy J7

     Reflections in photography can be used to express meaning in ways that a normal picture may not be able to capture. I find this similar to interesting perspectives.



     Reflections can even be found at home like in this picture. To make the reflections more vivid you may have to use a photo editor such as Photoshop to sharpen the shapes within the reflection. For this picture I used a mobile application called Snapseed. I merely added the dramatic filter to achieve this quality. The below picture is what this photo looked like without any filters.

Assignment 2: Repetitive Patterns

Camera: Samsung Galaxy J7

     Repetitive patterns are basically any patterns found in life that repeat themselves. (Don't know how to explain this further, because that's really all there is to it.)

     Macbook Pro keyboard with Sepia effect.

   
 Closeup of a basketball's surface with Grayscale effect.

   
The fabric used to make my Addidas bag.

   
Some more repetitive patterns.

Assignment 1: Rule of Thirds

Camera: Samsung Galaxy J7
Specs:

• Primary: 13 MP, f/1.9, 28mm, autofocus, LED flash
• Features: Geo-tagging, touch focus, face detection, panorama
• Video: 1080p@30fps
• Secondary: 5 MP, f/2.2, 23mm, LED flash

     My first picture trying out the rule of thirds. Used the Steve Jobs book I just bought with a white background and added the Grayscale effect.

     Focusing on the feather as my subject. The following pictures don't really have much going for them. I've taken them simply as a rule of thirds photo that can be used as a background for text, and etc.

     Two cupids hanging out in the courtyard.

     Now this is what I call a rule of thirds.

Head Developers Summary

     This is a short summary of the steps I've taken during the course of the web development project, which dates back to before the first group meeting.

Research Phase

     Before beginning to work on the website I needed to create a plan of action. I based this off of questions that I had such as;

"What hosting service should I use?"
"What coding language would best fit my needs?"
"How can I get this job done in the most productive way possible while using the least amount of time?"

     So, naturally, I asked Google. After a few days of surfing the internet I found a few website hosting services that fitted both my needs and the needs of my team (which I guessed beforehand). My top 3 choices are as follows;

1. https://www.squarespace.com/
   
2. http://www.wix.com/
   
3. https://wordpress.com/
   

     All of these CMS are great choices, but for me Squarespace won the #1 spot because of its extremely flexible drag-and-drop interface that would give the Designers lots of room to throw in their creativity and make it a lot easier for the Developers to integrate the ideas of the Designers into the website. I had found what I was looking for in this phase, so I decided it was a good time to meetup and discuss our options.

The Meeting

     During our first meeting at Mahidol we organized our team into 3 main groups which consists of;

1. Content
2. Designers
3. Developers

     The Content teams job was to basically find related information to input into the website while creating a presentable format for proper presentation and aesthetics.

     The Designers had a special job. This team would have to create a visual representation of the website while taking into account the targeted age group, viewer interests, aesthetics, and purpose of the website.

     Now it comes down to my job, the head Developer. The Developers job is to take all the input received from both the Content and Designer teams, turn it all into digital format, and output a finished product that follows the specifications designated by the other two teams.

     At the same meeting, Teacher Bird also taught the others how they would go about doing their jobs, and the skills they would need to possess in order to complete their jobs successfully. For example, he taught the Designers how to create wireframe to help them design the website in a suitable format, and he taught the Content team how to create a persona in order to find content that would interest the viewers.

The Hard Part

     Now, we've arrived at the part where we all actually have to put our plan to the test, which means more work for everybody (especially the Developers in the later stages) Yay! Anyways, I've created a test website simulating what the official website 'might' look similar to using WordPress, because Squarespace allows for only a 14-day free trial. Currently, I'm still waiting for the Designers to send the website design and the Content team to send the content specifications. In the meantime, I might as well mess around with some code and try to prepare myself for the challenges I know the Designers have in store for me and my team. Hopefully, they don't go to overboard with it. ;)

Other Specifications

• Programming Language: HTML & CSS w/ JavaScript integration
• CMS: Squarespace (not confirmed)
• Home Page Format: (not confirmed)
• Website Format: Newsletter/School
• Theme: (not confirmed)
• Main Content: Home, About Us, Activities & Events, Studies & Lessons, Student Projects
• Target Age Group: (Specifications w/ Content Team)
• Project Deadline: (not confirmed)